What Is a Tell the Remnants of Mesopotamian Cities

A tell (alternately spelled tel, til, or tal) is a special form of archaeological mound, a human-built construction of earth and stone. Most types of mounds around the world are built within a single phase or period of time, as temples, as burials, or as significant additions to the landscape. A tell, however, consists of the remains of a city or village, built and rebuilt in the same location for hundreds or thousands of years. True tells (called chogha or tepe in Farsi, and hoyuk in Turkish) are found in the Near East, the Arabian peninsula, southwestern Europe, northern Africa, and northwestern India. They range in diameter from 30 meters (100 feet) to 1 kilometer (.6 mile) and in height from 1 m (3.5 ft) to more than 43 m (140 ft). Most of them began as villages in the Neolithic period between 8000-6000 BC and were more or  less steadily occupied until the Early Bronze Age, 3000-1000 BC. How Did That Happen? Archaeologists believe that sometime during the Neolithic, the earliest inhabitants of what would become tells chose a natural rise in, for example, the Mesopotamian landscape, in part for defense, in part for visibility and, especially in alluvial plains of the Fertile Crescent, to stay above annual flooding. As each generation succeeded another, people built and rebuilt the mudbrick houses, remodeling or even leveling the previous buildings. Over hundreds or thousands of years, the level of the living area became increasingly elevated. Some tells included walls built around their perimeters for defense or flood containment, which restricted the occupations to the top of the mounds. Most of the occupation levels remained on top of the tells as they grew, although there is some evidence that homes and businesses were built along the base of the tells even as early as the Neolithic. It may be that most tells have extended settlements that we cant find because they are buried beneath floodplain alluvium. Living on a Tell Because tells were used for such a long time, and presumably by generations of the same families sharing cultures, the archaeological record can inform us of the changes over time of a specific city. In general, but, of course, there is a lot of variation, the earliest Neolithic houses found at the base of tells were single-storied one-roomed buildings of basically the same size and layout, where hunter-gatherers lived and shared some open spaces. By the Chalcolithic period, the residents were farmers who raised sheep and goats. Most of the houses were still one-roomed, but there were some multi-roomed and multi-storied buildings. Variations seen in house size and complexity are interpreted by archaeologists as differences in social status: some people were better off economically than others. Some tells show evidence of free-standing storage buildings. Some of the houses share walls or are in close proximity to one another. Later residences were thinner-walled structures with small courtyards and alleys separating them from their neighbors; some were entered through an opening in the roof. A singular style of room found in early Bronze Age levels of some tells is similar to later Greek and Israelite settlements called megarons. These are rectangular structures with an interior room, and an exterior unroofed porch at the entry end. At Demircihà ¶yà ¼k in Turkey, a circular settlement of megarons was enclosed by a defensive wall. All of the entrances to the megarons faced the center of the compound and each had a storage bin and small granary. How Do You Study a Tell? The first excavations in a tell were completed in the mid-19th century and, typically, the archaeologist simply dug an enormous trench right through the middle. Today such excavations—such as Schliemanns excavations at Hisarlik, the tell thought to be the legendary Troy—would be considered destructive and highly unprofessional. Those days are gone, but in todays scientific archaeology, when we recognize how much is lost by the process of digging, how do the scientists cope with recording the complexities of such an enormous object? Matthews (2015) listed five challenges facing archaeologists who work on tells. Occupations at the base of tells could be hidden by meters of slope wash, alluvial floods.Earlier levels are masked by meters of later occupations.Earlier levels may have been reused or robbed to build others or disturbed by cemetery construction.As a result of shifting settlement patterns and variations in construction and leveling, tells are not uniform layer cakes and often have truncated or eroded areas.Tells may represent only one aspect of the overall settlement patterns, but may be over-represented because of their prominence in the landscape. In addition, simply being able to visualize the complex stratigraphy of an immense three-dimensional object is not easy in two dimensions. Even though most modern tell excavations only sample a part of a given tell, and archaeological record keeping and mapping methods have advanced considerably with the use of both the Harris Matrix and GPS Trimble equipment widely available, there are still important areas of concern. Remote Sensing Techniques One possible assistance to archaeologists would be to use remote sensing to predict features in a tell before beginning excavation. Although there is a wide and growing number of remote sensing techniques, most are limited in range, able to visualize only between 1-2 m (3.5-7 ft) of subsurface visibility. Often, the upper levels of a tell or the off-tell alluvial deposits at the base are zones which are quite disturbed with few intact features. In 2006, Menze and colleagues reported using a combination of satellite imagery, aerial photography, surface survey, and geomorphology to identify previously unknown remnant roads connecting tells in the Kahbur basin of northern Mesopotamia (Syria, Turkey, and Iraq). In a 2008 study, Casana and colleagues used low-frequency ground penetrating radar and electrical resistance tomography (ERT) to extend the remote sensing reach into Tell Qarqur in Syria to map subsurface features in the mound to depths greater than 5 m (16 ft). Excavation and Recording One promising recording method involves the creation of a suite of data points in three dimensions, to produce a 3-dimensional electronic map of the site that allows the site to be analyzed visually. Unfortunately, that requires GPS positions taken during excavations from the top and bottom of boundaries, and not every archaeological examination of tells has that. Taylor (2016) worked with existing records at Çatalhà ¶yà ¼k and produced VRML (Virtual Reality Modular Language) images for analysis based on Harris Matrices. His Ph.D. thesis reconstructed the building history and plots of artifact types of three rooms, an effort that shows much promise for grappling with the huge amount of data from these fascinating sites. Sources Casana J, Herrmann JT, and Fogel A. 2008. Deep subsurface geophysical prospection at Tell Qarqur, Syria. Archaeological Prospection 15(3):207-225.Losier LM, Pouliot J, and Fortin M. 2007. 3D geometrical modeling of excavation units at the archaeological site of Tell ‘Acharneh (Syria). Journal of Archaeological Science 34(2):272-288.Matthews W. 2015. Investigating Tells in Syria. In: Carver M, Gaydarska B, and Montà ³n-Subà ­as S, editors. Field Archaeology from Around the World: Ideas and Approaches. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p 145-148.Menze BH, Ur JA, and Sherratt AG. 2006. Detection of Ancient Settlement Mounds. Photogrammetric Engineering Remote Sensing 72(3):321-327.Steadman SR. 2000. Spatial Patterning and Social Complexity on Prehistoric Anatolian Tell Sites: Models for Mounds. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 19(2):164-199.Taylor JS. 2016. Making Time For Space At Çatalhà ¶yà ¼k: GIS as a tool for exploring intra-site spatiotemporality withi n complex stratigraphic sequences. York: University of York.

The Effects Of Alcohol On College Drinking Prevention Website

Introduction Alcohol is one of the most addictive drugs in the United States and the most prevalently used among college students. A mixture of stress that comes from school and sometimes work sometimes encourages college students to use this drug as a source of alleviation. This negative situation causes many cases of death, sexual assault, injury, unsafe sex, and academic failure. The overconsumption of alcohol is a major issue that can only be resolved through proper teaching of the harmful effects of alcohol and the proper way to handle stress. Discussion In the article posted on the college drinking prevention website, it stated that 1,825 students end up dying from alcohol-related injuries in the United States and 599,000 are injured but survive. These numbers are significantly high, but nevertheless can be reduced. Another cause of alcohol related deaths is the simple fact that college students do not take what happens to them seriously when being overly induced with alcohol. 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Organizational Structures and Air Force Recruiting Service free essay sample

The rimary advantage of this type of organization is the ability to focus on customer needs and provide faster, better service (Bateman Snell, 2009). If there was not a divisional separation, the flatness of the hierarchy of management would lead to an overwhelming number of subordinates supervised by each level of management. Under its current organization Headquarters Recruiting Service is responsible for the direct management of three mid-level organizations known as recruiting groups. Each of these groups has the responsibility of managing eight front-line recruiting squadrons. Headquarters Recruiting Service has complete responsibility for the establishment of strategic goals for the recruiting service. It establishes the annual requirements that each group must meet in to satisfy the minimum need the Air Force has for new recruits. Headquarters Recruiting Service will also determine the operating budget for each group based upon its assigned objectives. Development of all marketing strategies is also the responsibility of Headquarters Recruiting Service. We will write a custom essay sample on Organizational Structures and Air Force Recruiting Service or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Once the strategic plans are approved and passed down tactical planning will take place at the group level. Based upon the propensity for success each squadron is given the number of new recruits they need to assess to be successful. The group will also allocate budgets to each of the recruiting squadrons and pass down the allotted marketing plans as determined by HRS. Squadron commanders will follow a similar to it. A recruiting flight is the lowest level of management in Recruiting Service and typically consists of between four and twelve recruiters who will operate semi- autonomously in the field. Each flight will determine the individual recruiters goals nd provide continuing training, mentoring, and management of the recruiters. Managers at the flight level are known as Flight Chiefs. Each flight chief will also be responsible for establishing control procedures to insure the recruiters achieve their established goals. Whereas many people view the armed forces as organizations that pass orders from on high down to the lowest ranking individuals who will follow them blindly that is any thing but the case. The Air Force places incredible value upon the men and women who complete the many missions ecessary to maintain this nations freedoms. To ensure airmen are properly equipped to deal with their day-to-day responsibilities there are many organizational resources put into place for support. Recruiting Service implements a form of human resources that provides for all the necessary elements of any corporate human resources program. The primary mission of Recruiting Service notwithstanding, there are training programs, regular evaluations, mentoring programs and a plethora of other resources put in place to give recruiters the support they need to be successful. Air Force recruiters will not only complete an initial training program that lasts more than seven weeks but also attend annual and quarterly training sessions as well. Each of these training sessions are three to five days long and cover a variety of training topics from marketing and sales skills to counselling and leadership techniques. This training provides recruiters the capability to handle all manner of situations that may arise. Every level of Recruiting Service conducts evaluations on a regular bases. Flight chiefs conduct telephonic debriefings with ndividual recruiters on a weekly basis. They also conduct a monthly office visit and perform a standards inspection to verify the recruiter is following established procedures. Monthly flight meetings are held to allow recruiters to come together and discuss issues and challenges as well as successes